ingenuity, or labour, are also lawful property. Purchase is the giving what one had a right to, for something which belonged to another, and therefore purchase gives a just right. Free gift, from one who has power to give, makes a just title. In things which have been claimed by no one, the first possession gives a title, as in the case of uninhabited countries. To seize a country by force of arms, to the prejudice of the original inhabitants, is a flagrant injustice. For as the first entrance into an uninhabited country, being by the direction of Providence, gives the first discoverers a title to it, it is evident, that no person can, without violating the laws of justice, disturb the first possessors in their property, or pretend to a settlement in that country, but by agreement with the first possessors.

I do not think it necessary to my purpose to determine, with the utmost exactness, the boundaries of property, or how far one person may lawfully encroach upon another's right. Whoever sincerely loves his neighbour with the same measure of affection as himself, will be as tender of his property as he would wish others to be of his own; and whoever resolves to regulate his conduct according to rec titude, will be more delicately fearful of breaking in upon another's right, than of loosing part of his own; and with the utmost reason: For in violating his neighbour's right, he becomes guilty before God; whereas in loosing his own, the worst consequence is, his being deprived of what is of no great value in itself, and which he must soon leave behind him.

Whatever practices tend to the violation of any person's just property, they are all contrary to the affection we ought to entertain for our neighbour, and to strict rectitude. Whether such practices are openly violent, or more indirect and concealed, the consequences being the same, the vice is the same; unless where increased or diminished by circumstances of greater or less aggrava tion. Thus, receiving or concealing the property of another, whether stolen, robbed, or found, if the proprietor is known, or assisting or countenancing another in such practices is the same injury to our neighbour as direct theft.

The most extensive and ruinous violation of property, is that which is committed by those scourges and curses

of this lower world, Tyrants. When one of those furies, the disgrace and horror of the human species, breaks loose upon mankind, a whole kingdom is robbed, a quarter of the world is plundered. And in that day, when all differences of rank will be at an end, dreadful in that day will be the charge against those who, being by Divine Providence raised for the general happiness of mankind, have used their power only to spread extensive misery and distress among God's creatures.

Whoever is by the Divine Providence raised to a station of power and influence, and takes the advantage of his power to oppress his inferiors, shows himself not only unjust, but cowardly; For true greatness of mind scorns any unfair advantage. And if it be unjust to appropriate to one's self what belongs to another, however able he may be to bear the loss, much more cruel and base is it for the rich to avail themselves of their power to the distressing of their poor tenants or dependants. What will add but a small matter to the already over grown wealth and superfluous state of the powerful landlord, wrung from the poor industrious farmer, reduces him, and his numerous family, to the extremity of distress. And that heart must have little feeling, that would not spare a superfluous dish, or a needless bottle, rather than a family of half a dozen fellow-creatures should want bread.

I know of no oppression in this happy country, of such great and extensive bad consequences, as that occasioned by the abuse of law: the grievance of which is so much more calamitous, as the very intention of the law is the redress of grievances. It is notorious, that it is in the power of any rascally pettifogger to keep a whole town in fear, and to ruin as many as he pleases of the poor and industrious part of the inhabitants, who are, without doubt, collectively considered, the most valuable part of the people: And the judge upon the bench must sit and see such wicked practices, without having it in his power to give any relief to an unhappy subject, who is stripped, and his family beggared, to satisfy a voracious blood-sucker and all under pretence of equity. One single regulation would at once put a stop to this whole complaint, viz. A law, by which in all cases of prosecution about private concerns, if one of the parties choose to submit the cause

to arbitration, the other should be obliged to stand the award. The most judicious and prudent set of men in the nation, I mean the merchants, find this the most amicable, equitable, and frugal manner of deciding disputes about property, and generally use it. And it were to be wished that it were universal; which is to be hoped the abominable iniquity of the law will at last bring about.

The ancient maxim, that the rigour of the law is the height of injustice, is undoubtedly true. And whoever is ready to take all advantages of his neighbour, which the law, strained to its utmost strictness will give him, shows himself (so far from loving his neighbour as himself) to be of a disposition to plunder his neighbour for his own advantage in the utmost iniquitous manner, if he could but at the same time keep himself safe; and that it is not the love of justice and of his neighbour, but fear of punishment, that restrains him from the most notorious violation of property by theft or robbery.

If by borrowing money, or buying goods upon credit, knowing one's self to be in no condition to pay, while the person he deals with believes him fit to be trusted, if by such means as these one may as much injure his neigh bour's estate, as by open violence or theft, it is evident that all such proceedings are highly unjust. Every man has a right to know the truth in all cases which concern himself: And whoever conceals from his neighbour a truth, which, if he had known, he would have acted an other part than he did, is the cause of all the loss he may suffer by such transaction. Yet nothing is more common than for traders to borrow large sums a very few days before their becoming insolvent. In which, besides the injustice, the abuse of friendship and confidence greatly aggravates the iniquity.

It is lamentable to observe how little regard is too gene. rally paid to such promises as people think themselves not legally liable to be compelled to the performance of. Breaking promises is violating sacred truth. And withholding from a person what one has absolutely promised him, supposing it still in his power to perform his promise, is depriving him of what he has a right to claim; which is in effect a violation of property. Especially in the case of a dependence upon a promise given, by which

the expectant is disappointed, and greatly injured. This is direct injustice, falsehood, and cruelty. Nor does the consideration of an unexpected expense, which the ful filling of the promise may occasion, bring any excuse for violating it. All that was to have been considered beforehand, and accounted upon, before you gave your promise. At the same time a generous man will quit his right to what has been promised him, when he finds, that the promiser cannot, without considerable detriment, fulfil his engagement.

To withhold a just debt, though the creditor should not have it in his power to recover it by law; is equally unjust, as in the case of its being recoverable. The intention of the law of bankruptcy is to give unfortunate debtors an opportunity of doing justice to their creditors. Therefore he, who takes the advantage of his being cleared by the statute of bankruptcy, and refuses to make complete payment of his whole debts, when it comes afterwards to be in his power, is guilty of the same sort of injustice as the thief. And to take advantage of sanctuaries, or privileg ed places; or of the laws in favour of members of either houses of parliament, to screen one's self, or others; or by any other means to evade, or assist others in evading, the payment, of just debts, where it is in the debtor's power to make payment, is the very same species of iniquity as theft, with the aggravation of the abuse of law, and the baseness of taking an advantage of the weaker.

Nor is the absolute refusal of a just debt, only injustice; but even the delay of payment beyond a reasonable time, if at all in one's power to make payment, is injurious and iniquitous. And all the prejudice suffered by the cred. itor, by loss of interest of money, or by inconveniences in his affairs, through want of what he has a just title to, is justly to be laid to the charge of the debtor.

All breach of trust, whether through careless neglect or voluntary embezzling of what is committed to one's care, in the capacity of an executor of the will of the dead, of an assignee, steward, factor, deputy; all proceedings of this kind, which are different from the conduct one would pursue in the management of his own concerns, or might in reason expect another to do for him, are deviations from rectitude, and the great rule of loving our neighbour with the same measure of affection as ourselves.

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In commerce and traffic, all advantages taken by dealers, against one another, beyond what the one, if he were in the other's place would think just and reasonable, are iniquitous. Of this kind are all deceits in goods, as put. ting them off for somewhat better than they are, whether that be done by concealing their real faults, or by giving them counterfeit advantages. Over-rating of commod ities; that is, selling them at such a price, as will yield an exorbitant profit to the seller, to the prejudice of the buyer, which shows in a very bad light all monopolies, especially of such articles of commerce as are necessary in trade, or in life. All advantages taken by traders possessed of large capitals, to the hurt of persons in narrower circumstances. All advantages taken by the knowing, against the ignorant. Advantages taken by the buyer against the seller, whether of his ignorance or necessity. And those most flagrant iniquities of false weights, meas. ures, or coins; with whatever else in general, may be the means of transferring to one person the property of another in any manner, which he who is the gainer would think an injustice and hardship, if he were in the case of the loser; all such arts of commerce are iniquitous and unjus tifiable.

Reader, if thou art wise, thou wilt stop here, and examine thy heart, and thy life. If thou hast ever desired, or effected, the prejudice of thy neighbour in his property, whether by means of power or craft, as thou lovest thy soul, do not delay one day to repent, and reform thy fault, and to make ample restitution to the injured person, to his heirs, or if these cannot be found, to the poor. If thou goest down to the grave loaded with the spoils of injustice, they will sink thy soul to the bottomless pit. For the Judge of the world is of infinite purity and jus tice; and will show no mercy to the impenitent offender against unchangeable and eternal rectitude.

Men being drawn to make encroachments upon the property of others, through avarice; it is evidently the duty of every man to look into his own heart; and find out whether the love of riches takes up too much room in it. And if he finds, what I doubt most men will find, that he loves riches better than he does his neighbour, that he has a greater desire to gain wealth than to be of service to